The third format was used only by printmakers^c.   It is commonly called a pillar print because it was narrow enough to be attached to a pillar supporting the roof of a house of the time. Pictures with a horizontal format (14%) were inspired by European landscape pictures which appeared in books brought to Japan by Dutch traders^d. Print 4 is an example of a horizontal Japanese landscape scene featuring birds. Some printmakers also used the horizontal format for close up views of birds, as in print 5. In the latter picture the western practice of including a picture border was also adopted. However, only 7% of ukiyo-e bird prints had a border likely because pictures were not mounted in wooden frames as they were in Europe, making a picture border unnecessary.

Printmakers normally included some written information about themselves on a print. Artists wrote their names using the Japanese kanji alphabet. This signature was written more often on the lower half of a picture (prints 2, 3) than on the top half (prints 1, 4). Some artists also added their personal seal (prints 1, 3, 5). Print publishers added their company logo to about 8% of ukiyo-e bird prints. One example is the rectangle and circle logo used by the publisher Yamaguchiya Tōbei on print 2. The circular seal above this logo is called a censor seal. To minimize political unrest and offensive behaviour the government censored some printed matter. A censor seal showed that an item had passed inspection. Bird prints were unlikely to offend or cause political unrest so only a few (1%) show evidence of having been inspected. A few printmakers (10%) also included written information about a picture’s subject. When the Japanese names of birds and (or) flowers were included they could appear either alone or as part of a poem written in any of the three Japanese scripts (kanji, hiragana, katakana). The poem written on print 1 mentions a flower. A landscape picture could include the name of the location depicted as it does in print 4.

^a   All percentages are based on a sample of 932 ukiyo-e bird prints by 69 different artists. Their names, signatures and examples of their prints are included in Appendix 1.
^b   A picture painted on paper was typically mounted on a scroll for display. The scroll was unrolled and hung vertically so pictures were usually vertically oriented as well. It is unclear whether bird prints were also mounted on scrolls for display or simply attached directly to the wall. A print was relatively inexpensive compared to a painting because multiple copies could be made and sold. It would be surprising to discover that purchasers of inexpensive prints incurred additional expense by having them mounted on scrolls. 
^c   Invention of the pillar print is attributed to Masanobu Okumura (Pins, 1982).
^d   See Woodson (1998) for more information about Japanese landscape prints.

Picture Composition

Birds were often (69%) paired with either flowering or fruiting plants in keeping with the Chinese bird-and-flower paintings on which ukiyo-e bird prints were based. The birds and flowers chosen for depiction typically had symbolic meaning. The swallows and cherry flowers in print 6 are both symbols of the spring season^a. Non-flowering plants appear in an additional 22% of ukiyo-e bird prints. Plants with symbolic significance, such as the pine tree^b in print 7, were especially popular choices.

^a   Ball (1969), Volker (1975) and Baird (2001) explain the symbolic associations of many of the plants and birds included in this book.
^b   Due to its evergreen leaves the pine is a symbol of long life.

Inanimate objects were included in about a third of ukiyo-e bird prints. Three of these objects, flowing water, the sun and earth appear in print 7 above. Artists worldwide use flowing water to suggest motion or action. The rising, red sun^c likely indicates the start of a new year as well as a new day. Earth simply provided a platform for a standing bird. A full moon also appeared in a number of ukiyo-e bird prints, often with a flying cuckoo as in print 8. Cuckoos may sing throughout the night which is the basis for this pairing.

  ^c   Japan is popularly known as the land of the rising sun not only because the sun rises first in the east but also because the kanji name for Japan (i.e., Nihon) means sun-origin.  

Birds were combined with humans in a few prints (1%). In print 9 a courtesan is shown reading a love letter while riding on the back of a crane. This design parodies Chinese paintings in which a person of significance with good morals was shown being carried to heaven on the back of a large bird, often a crane. Humor such as this was characteristic of ukiyo-e prints showing human activity.  

Man-made objects were shown on some (5%) ukiyo-e bird prints. Prints 10 and 11 provide two examples. According to Japanese legend a big drum was used to summon troops before a battle but in peace time it stood unused and became a favorite perching spot for domestic fowl instead. Peace time is symbolized by the combination of a big drum and domestic fowl in print 10.  In print 11 a northern goshawk was shown sitting on a man-made perch. Hawking was a popular sport for military government leaders and owning either a hawk or a print of this powerful predator was a sign of the owner’s power. 

Bird Species Chosen for Depiction

Ukiyo-e artists chose a wide range^a of naturally occurring bird species to depict in their printed art. It is impractical to show an example of each species so only the most popular (i.e., chosen most often) and the most distinctive (i.e., chosen only by ukiyo-e artists) are described here. The most popular bird species were members of the following six bird families; (1) pheasants and fowl (41%)^b, (2) sparrows (40%), (3-4) hawks and falcons (39%), (5) ducks and geese (38%) and (6) cranes (29%). Birds in these families are either large enough and (or) common enough to be seen easily by humans with their naked eye. Being easily seen, and therefore familiar, likely increased a bird species’ chance of being chosen for depiction. Each of the most popular species also had a symbolic association with a particular season of the year or human trait. These associations are mentioned in the following descriptions of species chosen from the six most popular bird families.

(1) Pheasants and Fowl (Phasianidae)^c

Golden pheasant (print 12), green pheasant (print 13) and domestic fowl (print 14) each appeared often in ukiyo-e bird prints. All three species were associated with manly beauty because of the male bird’s colorful plumage. The male’s tendency to fight with rivals made it a symbol of fighting ability and power as well. The golden pheasant was imported from the Asian continent and was kept in aviaries along with other exotic species for entertainment. The green pheasant is native to Japan and was most likely to be seen when it searched for food along the edges of cultivated fields^d. 

^a   87 species from 41 bird families appeared in the 932 ukiyo-e prints examined.
^b   percentage of ukiyo-e artists who chose a species from this bird family for depiction
^c   scientific name of the bird family
^d   Brazil (1991) describes the life of Japanese birds in more detail

(2) Sparrows (Passeridae)

The Eurasian tree sparrow (print 15) is common in both natural and man-made habitats throughout Japan and it is the wild bird most likely to be seen on a daily basis. It has many symbolic associations^a, including loyalty because its call sounds like a Japanese word for loyalty (chū).

^a    the Eurasian tree sparrow is also a symbol of grace, kindness, honor and the winter season.

(3-4) Hawks (Accipitridae) and Falcons (Falconidae)

The northern goshawk (print 11) and peregrine falcon (print 16) are native to Japan but a captive hawk or falcon used for sport was more likely to be seen than its wild counterpart by the average Japanese person. Their symbolic association with boldness, courage and victory reflect its practice of successfully attacking other birds.

(5) Ducks and Geese (Anatidae)

The mandarin duck (print 17), white-fronted goose (print 18) and mallard duck (print 19) were the three species of waterfowl most often depicted in ukiyo-e bird prints. The mandarin duck is associated with marital fidelity and happiness so the male and female are usually shown together. Ducks and geese in general are symbols of autumn and winter because migrating flocks arrive in autumn from Russia to spend winter months in Japan. Arriving autumn migrants are often shown in descending flight, as in print 18. The falling snow in print 19 reflects their association with cold winter months.

(6) Cranes (Gruidae)

The two species of cranes shown in print 20 were popular choices for ukiyo-e printmakers. The white-naped crane (with a black belly) is a winter visitor to Japan while the red-crowned crane is a year round resident. Consequently, the latter was depicted more often than the former. Cranes are associated with long life and prosperity both in China and in Japan which made them popular subjects for Chinese flower-and-bird paintings and for the Japanese ukiyo-e bird prints which they inspired.  

Some (8%) of the bird species depicted by Japanese printmakers only appear in Ukiyo-e prints. One such species is the mythical hō-ō bird (print 21).  Its tail feathers represent the five virtues of obedience, purity, loyalty, justice and kindness. The hō-ō bird was a favorite of Chinese artists and its choice by ukiyo-e artists is likely due to this influence.  

Accuracy of Depiction

Ukiyo-e artists adopted the Chinese philosophy of art^a by attempting to reveal the inner spirit of the bird being depicted instead of its physical appearance. Some external features of a bird could be purposely ignored or distorted to help create a sense of movement and action which revealed inner spirit. Spirit was emphasized over form because the artist was often interested in using the bird as a symbol of some aspect of the human spirit. Features of a particular bird’s shape and (or) color that were needed by a viewer to make the correct symbolic association were shown but rarely in a true-to-life way. Semi-accurate is the word that best describes the level of accuracy used by ukiyo-e artists to draw birds. Their use of semi-accurate color or shape is illustrated below using two examples (prints 22 and 23). In print 22 the green pheasant’s beautiful multicolor plumage^b is shown only in shades of grey. However, even without full color this bird is identifiable due to the accurate depiction of its body shape and plumage pattern. In print 23 the shape of the Eurasian tree sparrow is only semi-accurate because its wings are too pointed and head size is slightly exaggerated^c. However, the color scheme is sufficiently accurate for viewers to easily identify this bird as a Eurasian tree sparrow.

^a   See Rowland (1954) for additional information about the Chinese philosophy of art and its consequences for the depiction of  animals and plants.
^b   The green pheasant’s multicolor plumage is shown accurately in print 53.
^c   See print 61 for a more accuracy depiction of the shape of a Eurasian tree sparrow.

  Method of Printmaking

Ukiyo-e Notable Artists or Back to Guides